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Gender is generally conceived as a set of characteristics or traits that are associated with a certain biological sex (male or female). In non-western countries, gender is not always conceived as binary, or strictly linked to biological sex. As a result, in some cultures there are third, fourth,〔Roscoe, Will (2000). Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America. Palgrave Macmillan (June 17, 2000) ISBN 0-312-22479-6 See also: Trumbach, Randolph (1994). London’s Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture. In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111-36. New York: Zone (MIT). ISBN 978-0-942299-82-3〕 fifth〔Graham, Sharyn (2001), Sulawesi's fifth gender, Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001〕 or "some"〔Martin, M. Kay and Voorhies, Barbara (1975). Supernumerary Sexes, chapter 4 of Female of the Species (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), 23.〕 genders. The characteristics that generally define gender are referred to as ''masculine'' or ''feminine.'' The formation of gender is controversial in many scientific fields, including psychology. Specifically, researchers and theorists take different perspectives on how much of gender is due to biological, neurochemical, and evolutionary factors (nature), or is the result of culture and socialization (nurture). This is known as the nature versus nurture debate. The subfields of psychology note specific differences in the traits of each gender, based on their perspective of the issue on the nature versus nurture debate.〔Kimura, Doreen. (2004). Human sex differences in cognition, fact, not predicament. ''Sexualities, Evolution and Gender, 1,'' 45-53. doi:10.1080/14616660410001733597〕 == History== The study of gender took off in the 1970s. During this time period, academic works were published reflecting the changing views of researchers towards gender studies. Some of these works included textbooks, as they were an important way that information was compiled and made sense of the new field. In 1978 ''Women and sex roles: A social psychological perspective'' was published, one of the first textbooks on the psychology behind women and sex roles.〔 Zosuls, K., Miller, C., Ruble, D., Martin, C., Fabes, R. (2011). Gender Development Research in Sex Roles: Historical Trends and Future Directions. Sex Roles, 64, 826-842.〕 Another textbook to be published, ''Gender and Communication'', was the first textbook to discuss the topic of its subject.〔 Dow, Bonnie J., & Wood, J.(Eds.). (2006). Introduction. In .The SAGE Handbook of Gender and Communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 〕 Other influential academic works focused on the development of gender. In 1966, The Development of Sex Differences was published. This book went into what factors influence a child’s gender development, with contributors proposing the effects of hormones, social learning, and cognitive development in respective chapters. ''Man and Woman, Boy and Girl'', by John Money was published in 1972, reporting findings of research done with intersex subjects. The book proposed that the social environment a child grows up in is more important in determining gender than the genetic factors he or she inherits. In recent years, the majority of Dr. Money's theories regarding the importance of socialization in the determination of gender have come under intense criticism, especially in connection with the false reporting of success in the 'John/Joan' experiment (see David Reimer).〔Colapinto, J. ‘The True Story of John/Joan’. The Rolling Stone, December 11, 1997, pp. 54-97. Available at: http://www.healthyplace.com/gender/inside-intersexuality/the-true-story-of-john-joan/〕〔Colapinto, J. (2000). As nature made him: The boy who was raised as a girl. NY: HarperCollins.〕〔Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, H. K. (1997). Sex reassignment at birth: Long-term review and clinical implications. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 151(3), 298-304.〕 In 1974, ''The Psychology of Sex Differences'' was published. It said that men and women behave more similarly than had been previously supposed. They also proposed that children have much power over what gender role they grow into, whether by choosing which parent to imitate, or doing activities such as playing with action figures or dolls.〔 Zosuls, K., Miller, C., Ruble, D., Martin, C., Fabes, R. (2011). Gender Development Research in Sex Roles: Historical Trends and Future Directions. Sex Roles, 64, 826-842.〕 These works added new knowledge to the field of gender psychology. == Biological == (詳細はsex chromosomes, an X and a Y. Females have two X chromosomes. The Y chromosome is what determines sexual differentiation. If the Y chromosome is present, growth is along male lines. The SRY is a specific part of the Y chromosome which is the sex-determining gene region of the chromosome. This is what is responsible for the differentiation between male and females. Testosterone helps differentiate gender by increasing the likelihood of male patterns of behavior. It has effects on the central nervous system that trigger these behaviors. Parts of the SRY and specific parts of the Y chromosome could also possibly influence different gender behaviors.〔John Bancroft. (2002). Biological factors in human sexuality. Retrieved October 21, 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_1_39/ai_87080435/,〕 The biological approach states that the distinction between men and women are due to inherent and hormonal differences. This approach assumes that there really is not much room for sexual expression other than the one they are given by their biological makeup. It portrays people as having their gender role already decided by biology as either male or female at birth. Biological explanations of gender and sexual differences have been correlated to the work done by Charles Darwin regarding evolution. He suggested that just as wild animals and plants had physiological differences between sexes, humans did as well.〔Mwale, Shadreck. "What contributions have biological approaches made to our understanding of gender and sexuality?" Journal of Social and Psychological Sciences 1.2 (2008): 88+. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 6 Nov. 2011.〕 Biological perspectives on psychological differentiation often place parallels to the physical nature of sexual differentiation. These parallels include genetic and hormonal factors that create different individuals, with the main difference being the reproductive function. The brain controls behavior by individuals, but it is influenced by genes, hormones and evolution. Evidence has shown that the ways boys and girls become men and women is different, and that there are variations between the individuals of each sex.〔Berenbaum, Sheri, Judith Blakemore, and Adriene Beltz. "A Role for Biology in Gender-Related Behavior." Sex Roles 64.11 (2011): 804-25. Print.〕 There have been studies conducted to try and associate hormones with the gender identity of males and females. Okayama University in Japan did a study investigating the biological nature of gender identity disorder. The researchers looked at five different sex related hormones and whether or not they increased the chances of an individual being a transsexual. They examined male to female (MTF) and female to male (FTM) transsexuals, using control males and females for comparison. Their research did not find a significant difference in the distribution of the examined genes. The results currently can not provide evidence that the different genetic variants of sex hormone genes influence an individual to MTF or FTM transsexualism.〔Ujike, H., Otani, K., Nakatsuka, M., Ishii, K., Sasaki, A., Oishi, T., Kuroda, S. (2009). Association study of gender identity disorder and sex hormone-related genes. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 33(7), 1241-1244〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Gender psychology」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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